Date: July 4, 2010

Title: Astronomy in Colonial America

Podcaster: Alvin Ashworth

Description: The 4th of July is America’s birthday. We Americans are proud to celebrate approval of the Declaration of Independence- the kickoff event for the creation of a nation of freedom, opportunity, and hope. We also want to remember that the founding Fathers of the United States created the government for what would become a technologically advanced society that has become a leader in study and exploration of the heavens.

How did people in Colonial America think about the planets and stars? What were their views of the heavens and what were they inspired to do in the field of astronomy? Were there attitudes towards independent investigation and human dignity that predicted America’s fascination with technology in general and space in particular?

During this podcast we’ll take a look at the culture of Colonial America as it relates to science and to the scientific revolution. We’ll consider the tendencies towards innovation and exploration and the love of freedom that were part of the American psyche and look at how they relate to Colonial understanding and use of astronomy. Finally, we’ll look at some early contributions to astronomy, and the groundwork that was provided for subsequent generations of astronomers.

Bio: Al Ashworth manages an engineering team for a Rhode Island based technology company. He is educated in Philosophy, which led to an interest in Astronomy and Cosmology. He is an enthusiastic follower of NASA projects and a second time contributor to the 365 Days of Astronomy.

Today’s sponsor: “Between the Hayabusa homecoming from Itokawa and the Rosetta flyby of asteroid Lutetia, 13 June until 10 July 2010, this episode of ‘365 Days of Astronomy’ is sponsored anonymously and dedicated to the memory of Annie Cameron, designer of the Tryphena Sun Wheel, Great Barrier Island, New Zealand, a project that remains to be started.”

Transcript:

Hi, I’m Al Ashworth, an amateur astronomy enthusiast from Warwick, RI, in the USA. Today is America’s birthday, the anniversary of the founding fathers Ratification of the Constitution of the United States. Americans are justifiably proud of our nations leadership in the sciences in general and in Astronomy in
particular.

Today, we’ll try to understand America’s early interest in astronomy, look at some common themes, and briefly talk about a few of the leading astronomers in Colonial America. The first recorded Colonial Astronomical observation was made in 1585 by an Englishman in Virginia named Thomas Herriot. In considering possible explanations for the death of several Native Americans, he mentioned a solar eclipse a comet that was seen at about the same time. He did not believe that either had anything to do with the deaths.

In 1588 Harriot published a “Briefe and True Report of the New Found Land of Virginia”, which included a description of a “perspective glasse whereby we shewed manie strange sights.” These pretelescopic observations were likely made with a single magnifying lens.

Before we go further let’s clarify some terms:
First, Colonial America. There are many definitions of Colonial America. Here it refers to the years from the first landing by Columbus in 1492 to about 1800. Some say the signing on the declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776. Some say 1783, when the treaty of Paris was signed. I say 1800 because it’s close and it allows a fuller description of early American achievements.

Next, The scientific revolution which accompanied the development of Colonial America. The scientific revolution was marked by two key events. In 1543 Nicolas Copernicus’s published “On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres.” Copernicus promoted the heliocentric view of the heavens, where the earth is one of several planets that revolve around the sun.

The other marker of the Scientific revolution was the year 1610 when Galileo Galilee began astronomical observations with the newly invented telescope. The observations supported Copernicus heliocentric view of the heavens as well as opening the floodgates for astronomical observation and use of the telescope.

Colonial science and astronomy developed at the same time as the scientific revolution, and much (but not all) of American thought was influenced by it. To me, there were four principal themes in Science and astronomy in the early American colonial period:
1. Support of Theology.
2. Practical.
3. Democratic
4. Multicultural

• Although many scientifically minded people bristle at the thought, Support of Theology has been a theme In American speculation from the beginning. One of the earliest American proponents of Science to support theology was Massachusetts Puritan Cotton Mather. He was born in 1663 and died in 1728. He graduated from Harvard University at the age of 16. Mather is often criticized for his role in the Salem Witch trials. Depending on which source you use, he was either a cause and prime mover of the trials, or he was a moderating influence on more vicious proponents.

In 1921 Cotton Mather published his work “The Christian Philosopher” In which he tried to reconcile his contemporary Puritan beliefs with Newtonian physics. He also used the argument from design to prove God’s existence. The Design argument was first used by the Greek Philosopher Plato and it basically says that the
complexity of the heavens and of the universe proves that there must be an intelligent Creator that designed it all.

Why is this important for a scientific podcast about astronomy? Cotton Mather represents the beginning of a strand of thought that has a strong influence on science education to this day. Creation Science and
intelligent design are phrases that often appear in the news and it is important to understand the
concerns that they represent.

• Early American Science and Astronomy was also practical.
Early settlement took place during Francis bacon (1561-1626)/Age of Reason. During this period Science was practical, part of building the new world. It was a tool. One unidentified Colonial American was quoted as saying “We want hands, my lord, more than heads”

Life was hard in early settlements and science was a tool to cope. Astronomy was used in Port cities for navigation. It was also necessary tool for our Westward expansion. English astronomers Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon used stargazing skills to fix the boundary between Pennsylvania and MD: known as the Mason Dixon line.

Thomas Jefferson’s Louisiana Purchase also provided need and opportunity to use astronomy to map the west. In this vain Thomas Jefferson said: Science never appears so beautiful as when applied to the uses of human life.

• A third theme in Colonial American Astronomy was Democratic Tendencies.
Many could read a requirement for Democracy as we know it. Many of the inhabitants of seaport cities in colonial America were literate: 90% of New England’s women and almost all of its men could read and write.
Primary education was thought to be important so that everyone could read the Bible. Related to this were proliferation of pamphlets and Newspapers, which often included science articles. There were also many traveling lecturers .

At the opening of the Revolution there were thirty-seven newspapers printed in the colonies, with a combined weekly circulation of about five thousand copies. There were also many Traveling lecturers that visited colonies to lecture on various scientific topics. (3)

“Sky watching was reported to be very popular. There was a proliferation of Astronomical publications and “Almanacs” in New England. These publications included practical information on weather and tides as well as more theoretical articles on the movement of the heavenly bodies. 5

• Another theme of Colonial American Science and Astronomy was that it was Multicultural. Remember Cotton Mather? He also developed the Inoculation technique for dealing w/small pox. He became aware of the idea of inoculation partially through reports from his African servant Onesimus.

Scientist Benjamin Banneker was the first known African American scientist. He was a self educated astronomer, surveyor and mathematician. He predicted a solar eclipse in 1789 based on his own observations. His many accomplishments included creation of a publication that predicted eclipses and tides called the Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia Almanac and Ephemeris. It is considered the first scientific work to be published by an African American.

Benjamin Banneker was recognized by President George Washington who appointed Benneker to a group that established the boundaries of the District of Colombia through use of surveying techniques. The most successful and famous Colonial American Astronomer was David Rittenhouse. Born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania on April 8, 1732, he died on June 26, 1796.

One of his most impressive achievements was his Orrery, which he built in 1766. The Orrery was a mechanical device that simulated the movement of planets in our solar system. His wasn’t the first orrery, but it may have been the best. It included spheres that represented the sun and planets. It operated like a clock. When a handle was turned, gears caused the spheres to move in simulation of the motion of the planets. It was reported to be able to accurately show the configuration of the solar system 5,000 years into the past or future. He was renowned.

Thomas Jefferson acknowledged him and said that he was “second to no astronomer living”

Another notable achievement was his observation of the transit of Venus in 1769. The transit of Venus occurres when the planet Venus passes between the Earth and the Sun so that it is possible to observe its path across the sun. With the aid of a government grant and 22 other telescope stations manned by members of the American Philosophical Association Rittenhouse observed the occurrence. It was important because viewing the transit from several angles made it possible to estimate the distance from the Earth to the Sun. Illness and extreme excitement caused Rittenhouse to faint and lose consciousness for a few minutes during the transit observation. He regained consciousness, though, and completed his observation. His calculations resulted in an estimate that the earth is 93 million miles from the sun. Today this is considered to be an accurate measurement of the average distance from the earth to the sun. In 1781
Rittenhouse also became the first American to see Uranus.

After this period, American astronomy developed in the universities and by the latter 19th century scientists like Annie Jump Cannon, George Hale, and Henrietta Swan Levitt became strong contributors to the development of Astronomy. I hope that you have enjoyed this short survey. If you are interested, please
see the show notes for additional resources.

Thank you for listening, and Happy Fourth of July!

1. See Wikipedia entry for Cotton Mather
2. Studies in American Natural history
3. See http://www.usahistory.info/colonial/newspapers.html
4. see http://www.infoplease.com/spot/bhmscientists1.html
5. http://www.history.org/Foundation/journal/Winter05-06/telescopes.cfm
6. Science in Colonial America.
From Wikipedia entry on John Rittenhouse
Proposed Periods in the History of Astronomy in America
Authors: Rufus, W. C.
Journal: Popular Astronomy, vol. 29, pp.393-404

End of podcast:

365 Days of Astronomy
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